Unfree labour, migration and mobility: contested outcomes

The relationships between the ideas of unfree/free labour and voluntary/forced migration are explored in order to add a migration perspective to the debate on unfree labour. The role of migration in the creation of unfree labour is examined through the evolution of networks brought about by labour recruiters. The linkages between unfree labour and unfree migration are also examined with a particular focus on trafficking and smuggling. In both situations, clear distinctions are found to be elusive and much “leakage” exists from one category to another. The changing relationships between these categories and development are outlined. Cases from both internal and international migration are used to illustrate the argument.